The Principal Features of Buddhism as Reflected in Early West Tibetan Art
September 2000 to August 2003 I received a three-year research grant by the Austrian Programme for Advanced Research and Technology (APART) of the Austrian Academy of Sciences. The aim of the project is summarised below; relevant publications are listed at the end.
Introduction
The ‘later spread of Buddhism’ in Tibet (phyi dar), as the period from the late 10th–13th centuries is called in Tibetan historical literature, was decisive for the development of Tibetan Buddhism. This formative period was distinguished by extensive translation work in close co-operation with Indian Buddhist scholars, by an adoption of the ideas of late Indian Buddhism, and the formulation of distinctively Tibetan interpretations of Buddhism. Although the major schools of Tibetan Buddhism have their roots in this period, relatively little is known about the Buddhism of that time.
The art-historical evidence preserved in monuments and artefacts attributable to the phyi dar in Tibet and present-day Northwest India demonstrates a variety of unique stages and interpretations of Buddhism within the context of the formation of Tibetan Buddhism. Because the information on early stages of Tibetan Buddhism in the indigenous historical literature (chos ’byung) and the hagiographies (rnam thar) of eminent Buddhist teachers and hierarchs is somewhat vague, the preserved monuments and artefacts are the most important source for the religious and cultural history of early Tibetan Buddhism.
The aim of this research is to elaborate a more detailed account of the specific character of the main themes of early West Tibetan Buddhism by studying its principal themes, the Vajradhātu mandala and the Dharmadhātuvāgīśvaramañjuśrī mandala, on the basis of the surviving art and the literature for which a direct relationship to the art can be established.
Outcomes
The APART project facilitated the establishment of an immense body of material from the analysis of the iconographic and formal characteristics of the most relevant themes — the Vajradhātu and Dharmadhātuvāgīśvaramañjuśrī mandalas — in textual sources as well as in the arts. The history of the main topics and the interrelationship of text and depiction often turned out not to be as clearly definable as had been expected, and working out this relationship in detail has required far more effort than originally foreseen. Furthermore, as these topics have turned out to be relevant to later Tibetan art as well, they have been followed far beyond the original scope of early western Himalayan art. The APART grant still forms the basis for my ongoing work on western Himalayan art, most notably the book Buddhist Sculpture in Clay. Early Western Himalayan Art, late 10th to early 13th centuries (Serindia, Chicago).
Methodological Comments Regarding Recent Research on Tibetan Art
Written in the context of teaching obligations and work on the Tucci collection thangkas, this review article of Amy Heller’s Tibetan Art: Tracing the Development of Spiritual Ideals and Art in Tibet 600–2000 A.D. (Milan: Jaca Book, 1999) considers the publication within the general context of recent studies on Tibetan art, focusing on methodological problems. It compares the state of research to the methodology of European art history with regard to dating, style, and iconography.
As the interests of the art market govern the initial scholarly publication of Tibetan objects, the primary aims are to place an object chronologically, to identify its main subject, and more recently to attribute it to a particular workmanship or origin. This concentration on appearance rather than content constitutes a major difference from European art history as a humanistic science. Tibetan art history — particularly regarding early Tibetan art — is still at the stage of building a scholarly foundation for studying the content.
The 12th Century Buddhist Monuments of Nako
Nako is one of the most important sites for Buddhist monuments in the western Himalayas, with seven temples distributed around the village, two of which date back to the 12th century. This article provides a more complete picture of the art preserved within the two oldest monuments and its value for research on the Buddhist art, culture, and history of the region. The article is based on the chronology later presented in greater detail in Buddhist Sculpture in Clay.
The two oldest temples at Nako bear witness to a distinctive phase in the early development of Tibetan Buddhism. Their decorative, iconographic, and technical details show numerous innovations compared to the renovation period murals in the Tabo Main Temple, while often representing iconographic themes comparable to those in the Alchi monuments. The Nako murals thus constitute a link between these two monuments. If the proposed dates are accepted, the Nako temples are the only monuments in the western Himalayas attributable to the first half of the 12th century — a period which saw the disintegration of the West Tibetan kingdom — making them an invaluable source for the study of early Tibetan Buddhism.
Early Tibetan Clay Sculpture
Few people consider clay an important artistic medium in Tibetan art, yet in Tibet clay has always been the sculptural material par excellence. Besides the mass-produced votive objects (tsha tsha) found all over Tibet, many large-scale sculptures in Tibetan Buddhist monasteries are made of the same material. Large-scale clay sculptures of the highest quality are particularly characteristic of the earliest Tibetan monuments preserved — a fact explained by the abundance of clay sculpture in all neighbouring regions when Tibet was absorbing Buddhism from India as well as, to a lesser degree, China and Central Asia.
This article summarizes how frequently clay was used as sculptural material throughout Tibetan history and the techniques employed. The brief survey demonstrates that these sculptures are an important and underappreciated aspect of Tibetan art, particularly because they often represent the main subject of a temple’s decoration; the monument can only be fully understood by taking them into account.
The Early Buddhist Heritage of Ladakh Reconsidered
This article reviews the earliest Buddhist heritage of Ladakh in light of Goepper’s demonstration that the Alchi group of monuments must be attributed to a considerably later date than previously assumed, and collects support for this attribution published since his original article of 1990. The now fairly secure attribution shifts the dates by only one century, but the repercussions on our perception of the earliest Ladakhi Buddhist heritage are wide-ranging. Most importantly, the new dating allows for linking the early Buddhist heritage in Ladakh to the general development of Tibetan Buddhism, with major effects on our understanding of early Tibetan art history.
On a more general level, the study outlines the most crucial historic issues and questions from an art historian’s and archaeologist’s point of view through discussion of exemplary monuments. Besides Alchi, the article discusses the 11th century ruin near Basgo, the “Priests’ Chörten” at Lamayuru, the teaching Buddha stele near the Changspa chörten, the stone steles (rdo ring) of Shey village and surroundings, the wooden sculptures of Sumda Chen, the wooden fragments of Lhachuse Temple, and the carved doorframe at Sumda Chung.
On the Iconography of Tibetan Scroll Paintings (thang ka) Dedicated to the Five Tathāgatas
A number of Central Tibetan scroll paintings are closely related to the Vajradhātumandala. These paintings form part of a series of at least five, each dedicated either to the centre or a quarter of the mandala. As the main deities are the five Tathāgatas or Jinas of the five Buddha families, these thangkas have commonly not been identified precisely and differentiated from other depictions of the five Jinas.
The article focuses on how thangkas featuring the deities of the Vajradhātumandala differ from other representations of the five Jinas and how they are organised and read. By discussing examples of different types and variations and pointing out distinctive elements, the reader is enabled to distinguish Vajradhātu-based thangkas from other five Jina representations. This contribution is complemented by Eva Allinger’s study on stylistic aspects of the same group of paintings in the same volume.
Relevant Publications
- Luczanits, Christian. 2014. “The Many Faces of Buddha Vairocana.” In The All-Knowing Buddha: A Secret Guide, edited by Jan van Alphen, 12–23. New York: Rubin Museum of Art / Antwerp: BAI & MAS Books. (See Rubin research page.)
- Luczanits, Christian. 2011. “On the Iconography of Tibetan Scroll Paintings (thang ka) Dedicated to the Five Tathāgatas.” In Art in Tibet. PIATS 2003, edited by Erberto F. Lo Bue, 37–51. Leiden: Brill.
- Luczanits, Christian, and Holger Neuwirth. 2010. “The Development of the Alchi Temple Complex. An Interdisciplinary Approach.” In Heritage Conservation and Research in India, edited by Gabriela Krist and Tatjana Bayerová, 79–84. Wien/Weimar: Böhlau. (See Alchi page.)
- Luczanits, Christian. 2008. “The Depiction of Hindu and Pan-Indian Deities in the Lo tsa ba lHa khang at Nako.” In South Asian Archaeology 1999, edited by Ellen M. Raven, 493–506. Groningen: Egbert Forsten.
- Luczanits, Christian. 2007. “Alchi Sumtsek Reconsidered.” In Recent Research on Ladakh 2007, edited by John Bray and Nawang Tsering Shakspo, 61–72. Leh: J&K Academy for Art, Culture & Languages. (See Sumtsek page.)
- Luczanits, Christian. 2006. “The Eight Great Siddhas in Early Tibetan Painting from c. 1200 to c. 1350.” In Holy Madness. Portraits of Tantric Siddhas, edited by Robert N. Linrothe, 76–91. New York: Rubin Museum of Art.
- Luczanits, Christian. 2006. “Alchi and the Drigungpa School of Tibetan Buddhism: the Teacher Depiction in the Small Chörten at Alchi.” In Mei shou wan nian – Festschrift in Honor of Roger Goepper, edited by Jeong-hee Lee-Kalisch et al., 181–196. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. (See Alchi page.)
- Luczanits, Christian. 2006. “A First Glance on Early Drigungpa Painting.” In Studies in Sino-Tibetan Buddhist Art. Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Tibetan Archaeology & Art, Beijing, 2004, edited by Xie Jisheng et al., 459–488. Beijing: China Tibetology Publishing House. (See Drigung research page.)
- Luczanits, Christian. 2005. “The Early Buddhist Heritage of Ladakh Reconsidered.” In Ladakhi Histories. Local and Regional Perspectives, edited by John Bray, 65–96. Brill’s Tibetan Studies Library, 9. Leiden: Brill.
- Luczanits, Christian. 2004. Buddhist Sculpture in Clay: Early Western Himalayan Art, late 10th to early 13th centuries. Chicago: Serindia.
- Luczanits, Christian. 2003. “Art-Historical Aspects of Dating Tibetan Art.” In Dating Tibetan Art, edited by Ingrid Kreide-Damani, 25–57. Wiesbaden: Ludwig Reichert Verlag. (See Alchi page.)
- Luczanits, Christian. 2003. “The 12th Century Buddhist Monuments of Nako.” Orientations 34, no. 5: 46–53.
- Luczanits, Christian. 2003. “Early Tibetan Clay Sculpture.” Aziatische Kunst 33, no. 2: 2–15.
- Luczanits, Christian. 2002. “The Wanla bKra-shis-gsum-brtsegs.” In Buddhist Art and Tibetan Patronage Ninth to Fourteenth Centuries, edited by Deborah E. Klimburg-Salter and Eva Allinger, 115–125. Leiden: Brill. (See Drigung research page.)
- Luczanits, Christian. 2001. “Methodological Comments Regarding Recent Research on Tibetan Art.” Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde Südasiens 45: 125–145. (Review article of Amy Heller, Tibetan Art.)
- Heller, Amy. 1999. Tibetan Art. Tracing the Development of Spiritual Ideals and Art in Tibet 600–2000 A.D. Milan: Jaca Book. (Reviewed in “Methodological Comments”.)