Buddhist Sculpture in Clay:
Early Western Himalayan Art, late 10th to early 13th centuries

Many of Buddhist monasteries and village temples built from the end of the 10th to the early 13th centuries in West Tibet and Ladakh feature clay sculptures. These sculptures are usually found in the main niches along the central axis of temples and are the main theme of a temple's furnishing/decoration. Thus these images constitute a major source for the history of the independent tradition of western Himalayan (Indo-Tibetan) art. A detailed survey of these sculptures and their relationship with contemporaneous paintings provides us with the first cultural and religious history of western Himalayan art. Sources include the Tabo Assembly Hall, Nako, Lalung and the early Alchi temples.

This study illuminates the complex interaction between Indian and Tibetan culture and the variegated forms of local Tibetan Buddhist adaptations. As with contemporaneous paintings, these sculptures reflect late Northwest-Indian Buddhist art for which otherwise little evidence remains. The comparison of clay sculpture with painting and other art forms such as woodcarving, provides us with a more detailed view on the origin and development of western Himalayan art.

Content Description

The introductory chapter briefly summarizes the history of clay sculpture in the Indian cultural world and sculptural techniques as described in the Indian classical literature.

The main chapter introduces the western Himalayan monuments and their sculptures, dividing them into three groups defined by historical and geographic parameters. Each monument is surveyed in turn and its relationship with other monuments discussed. Special sections describe the sculptures of each site in detail and highlight the distinctive character of the art for each group.

An extensive comparative section focuses on the character of western Himalayan sculpture and presents a classification of main iconographic topics and styles, aspects of ornamentation, framing of the sculptures, and construction techniques.

The final chapter summarizes how the heritage of early western Himalayan art and sculpture has continued.

Full Table of Contents

Preface ... ix
Acknowledgements ... xi
Spellings and Pronunciation ... xiv

INTRODUCTION ... 1

CHAPTER 1: SCULPTURES MADE OF CLAY ... 11
The Classical Indian Technique ... 12
Sculptural Techniques in the Western Himalayas ... 17
Early Clay Sculpture in Central Tibet ... 18

CHAPTER 2: ABODES OF THE BUDDHAS ... 21

THE EARLIEST WEST TIBETAN MONUMENTS ... 25
Three Major Foundations ... 29
Tabo ... 33
Entry Hall ... 35
Cella ... 35
Assembly Hall 43
Ropa ... 57
Minor Early Foundations ... 63
Tiak ... 64
Poo ... 66
Charang Foundation ... 67
Johling ... 68
Two Successive Artistic Traditions ... 69

12TH CENTURY WEST TIBETAN MONUMENTS ... 75
Nako ... 77
Translator’s Temple ... 79
Upper Temple ... 84
Lalung ... 89
Vairocana Chapel ... 90
Serkhang ... 93
Gumrang ... 107
Dunkar ... 113
Diverging Traditions ... 119

THE ALCHI GROUP OF MONUMENTS ... 125
Alchi ... 127
Dukhang ... 128
Sumtsek ... 137
Mañjuśrī Temple ... 148
Mangyu ... 155
Vairocana Temple ... 156
Four-armed Maitreya Chapel ... 164
Two-armed Maitreya Chapel ... 167
Four-Image Chörten ... 170
Sumda Chung ... 175
Assembly Hall ... 176
The Two Bodhisattva Chapels ... 186
A Unique Tradition ... 191

CHAPTER 3: BUDDHAS COMPARED ... 197

ICONOGRAPHY ... 201
Buddha ... 203
Bodhisattva ... 209
Goddess ... 214
Protectors ... 218
Compositions ... 220
Iconographic Programmes ... 221

STYLE AND COMPOSITION ... 225
Early Western Himalayan Painting Styles ... 226
Stylistic Relationship of Sculpture and Painting ... 228
Sculptural Styles ... 234

ORNAMENTATION AND FRAMES ... 239
Dressing a mandala sculpture ... 239
Special Ornaments ... 244
Throne Constructions and Frames ... 249
Lotus Scroll ... 256

CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUE ... 261
Mounting ... 262
Armature ... 265
Binding Material and Cord ... 267
Clay ... 268
Modelling ... 270
Applied Decoration ... 270
Painting ... 275
Proportions of the Tabo mandala sculptures ... 277

CHAPTER 4: SUBSEQUENT BUDDHAS ... 281
Guge ... 283
Kinnaur ... 288
Ladakh ... 291

APPENDICES ... 295
The Tabo Mandala Sculptures Compared ... 296
Inscription in the Nako Translator’s Temple ... 300
Sumda Mandala Sculptures ... 302

NOTES ... 304

BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 323

INDEX ... 337

GLOSSARY ... 351

Relation to Ph.D.

The book is based on my PhD covering the same subject. In the PhD the documentation is in the foreground and much more detailed. For example, it includes records of each sculpture that could be studied. In the book publication the general development of Western Himalayan art is in the foreground. The book places the clay sculptures in a wider context and emphasizes what can be learned from them.